Abstract
Ocean acidification, a consequence of rising atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) levels, poses a significant threat to global marine ecosystems by altering ocean chemistry and disrupting marine life. While Bhutan, a landlocked Himalayan nation, may seem distanced from direct oceanic impacts, its commitment to environmental conservation and sustainable development positions it as a unique contributor to global marine conservation efforts. This paper explores the broader impacts of ocean acidification on marine biodiversity and human communities, examining Bhutan’s potential role within the international framework of marine conservation. Through an analysis of intergovernmental organizations, treaties, and Bhutan’s environmental policies, the study highlights how a non-coastal nation can indirectly support marine conservation through climate mitigation, sustainable practices, and international collaboration. Recommendations are provided for Bhutan to enhance its role in addressing ocean acidification through policy advocacy, capacity building, and partnerships with global environmental bodies.
Introduction
Ocean acidification is increasingly recognized as a critical environmental challenge, often termed “climate change’s equally evil twin,” resulting from the ocean’s absorption of excess atmospheric CO2. This process lowers seawater pH, disrupts carbonate chemistry, and threatens the survival of calcifying organisms such as corals, mollusks, and certain plankton species (Smithsonian Ocean, 2018). The cascading effects impact marine ecosystems, fisheries, and the livelihoods of millions of people globally, particularly in coastal regions. As a global issue, ocean acidification necessitates collective action, transcending geographical boundaries and involving both coastal and landlocked nations.
Bhutan, a small, landlocked country in South Asia, is renowned for its pioneering approach to environmental stewardship, exemplified by its carbon-negative status and commitment to Gross National Happiness (GNH), which prioritizes sustainability over mere economic growth. While Bhutan lacks direct access to the ocean, its environmental ethos and international advocacy for climate action suggest potential contributions to mitigating ocean acidification. This paper seeks to explore how Bhutan can play a role in global marine conservation despite its geographical constraints, focusing on its involvement in international environmental frameworks and treaties, and its domestic policies on climate mitigation.
The study is structured as follows: a situational analysis of ocean acidification and its global impacts, a literature review of existing research on acidification and international cooperation, a discussion of Bhutan’s potential contributions, recommendations for actionable strategies, and a conclusion summarizing key findings and future directions.
Situational Analysis
Ocean acidification is driven by the absorption of approximately one-quarter of the CO2 released into the atmosphere from anthropogenic sources such as fossil fuel combustion, deforestation, and industrial activities. Since the Industrial Revolution, the ocean has absorbed around 525 billion tons of CO2, with current absorption rates estimated at 22 million tons per day (Smithsonian Ocean, 2018). This process forms carbonic acid in seawater, reducing pH levels by about 0.1 units over the past century—a 30% increase in acidity (NOAA Fisheries, 2021). Such changes impair the ability of marine organisms to build calcium carbonate structures, threatening species like corals and shellfish, which are foundational to marine ecosystems and human food security.
The impacts are far-reaching, affecting not only marine biodiversity but also global economies and communities reliant on fisheries and aquaculture. According to recent studies, ocean acidification has surpassed “safe operating limits” for planetary marine systems, exacerbating threats to biodiversity and the fishing industry (Nation Thailand, 2025). In regions like Hawai’i, acidification levels are projected to reach unprecedented highs, potentially disrupting local ecosystems for centuries (Sustainability Times, 2025). These challenges are compounded by other climate-related stressors such as warming waters and deoxygenation, creating a complex crisis that demands international cooperation.
While Bhutan is far removed from direct oceanic impacts, its environmental policies and carbon-negative status—achieved through extensive forest cover and renewable energy reliance—position it as a model for climate mitigation. Bhutan’s unique perspective, prioritizing ecological balance over industrial growth, offers lessons for addressing systemic environmental issues like ocean acidification. Moreover, as a member of international environmental bodies, Bhutan can influence global policies that indirectly protect marine ecosystems by reducing atmospheric CO2 levels.
Literature Review
Research on ocean acidification has grown significantly over the past decade, highlighting its chemical mechanisms and biological consequences. Doney et al. (2020) emphasize that rising CO2 levels alter seawater chemistry, reducing pH and carbonate ion availability, which directly impacts calcifying organisms and disrupts marine food webs (Annual Reviews, 2020). Field studies and laboratory experiments reveal widespread effects, from physiological stress in individual species to shifts in ecosystem dynamics, particularly in coral reefs and polar seas.
The socioeconomic implications are equally concerning. Fisheries and aquaculture, supporting the livelihoods of over 3 billion people worldwide, face threats from declining fish stocks and shellfish productivity due to acidification (UCS, 2019). Coastal communities, especially in developing nations, are disproportionately affected, facing food insecurity and economic losses. The World Economic Forum (WEF) recently warned that current acidification levels have breached safe thresholds, urging immediate international action to prevent irreversible damage (Nation Thailand, 2025).
International governance and policy responses to ocean acidification have been explored in various studies. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) highlights the need to integrate ocean acidification into broader environmental frameworks, advocating for collaborative approaches through treaties and intergovernmental organizations (IUCN, 2014). The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Paris Agreement are pivotal in addressing CO2 emissions, which indirectly mitigates acidification. Additionally, the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) emphasizes the protection of marine biodiversity, aligning with acidification mitigation efforts (IUCN, 2014).
While much of the literature focuses on coastal nations’ roles, there is a gap in exploring how landlocked countries like Bhutan can contribute to marine conservation. Bhutan’s environmental policies, rooted in sustainable development and carbon sequestration through forest conservation, offer indirect benefits to global marine health by reducing atmospheric CO2. Studies on Bhutan’s carbon-negative status underscore its potential as a model for other nations, though specific connections to ocean acidification remain underexplored (Royal Government of Bhutan, 2020).
Discussion
Ocean acidification presents a global challenge that transcends national boundaries, necessitating cooperation among diverse stakeholders, including landlocked nations like Bhutan. Although Bhutan lacks direct interaction with marine ecosystems, its environmental leadership and participation in international frameworks position it to contribute meaningfully to mitigating the drivers of acidification.
Bhutan’s Environmental Leadership
Bhutan’s commitment to maintaining at least 60% forest cover, enshrined in its constitution, ensures significant carbon sequestration, reducing global CO2 levels that contribute to ocean acidification. The country’s reliance on hydropower for energy further minimizes greenhouse gas emissions, aligning with the goals of international climate agreements like the Paris Agreement. Bhutan’s carbon-negative status—absorbing more CO2 than it emits—demonstrates a scalable model for climate mitigation that indirectly benefits marine ecosystems (Royal Government of Bhutan, 2020).
Moreover, Bhutan’s philosophy of Gross National Happiness integrates environmental sustainability into national policy, offering a unique perspective on balancing development and conservation. This approach could inform global discussions on sustainable practices that address root causes of ocean acidification, such as overreliance on fossil fuels and deforestation.
Role in Intergovernmental Organizations and Treaties
Bhutan is an active participant in several intergovernmental organizations and treaties relevant to environmental conservation. As a signatory to the UNFCCC and the Paris Agreement, Bhutan commits to reducing global CO2 emissions, a primary driver of ocean acidification. Through these frameworks, Bhutan can advocate for stronger emission reduction targets and funding mechanisms to support marine conservation projects in vulnerable regions.
Additionally, Bhutan’s engagement with the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) provides a platform to address transboundary environmental issues, including climate change impacts on neighboring coastal nations like India and Bangladesh, where ocean acidification affects fisheries and livelihoods. Bhutan can support regional initiatives to reduce CO2 emissions and promote sustainable practices that indirectly protect marine ecosystems.
Bhutan also aligns with the goals of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), which prioritizes the protection of global biodiversity, including marine ecosystems. By emphasizing ecosystem-based adaptation and resilience in its national biodiversity strategies, Bhutan can contribute to international efforts to safeguard marine life from acidification impacts (UN Environment Programme, 2021).
Indirect Contributions to Marine Conservation
Beyond formal treaties, Bhutan can influence global marine conservation through knowledge sharing and capacity building. The country’s expertise in sustainable land management and reforestation could be adapted to support coastal afforestation projects, such as mangrove restoration, which sequester carbon and buffer marine ecosystems against acidification. Collaborative projects with coastal nations, facilitated by organizations like the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), could amplify Bhutan’s impact.
Furthermore, Bhutan’s tourism sector, which promotes eco-friendly practices, can serve as a platform to raise awareness about global environmental issues like ocean acidification. By educating visitors and supporting international conservation campaigns, Bhutan can foster a broader cultural shift toward sustainability.
Challenges and Limitations
Despite its potential, Bhutan faces challenges in contributing to marine conservation. Limited financial resources and technical expertise restrict its ability to engage directly in marine research or large-scale mitigation projects. Additionally, as a landlocked nation, Bhutan may struggle to prioritize ocean-related issues over more pressing domestic concerns like poverty alleviation and infrastructure development.
However, these challenges can be addressed through partnerships with international organizations and donor agencies. By leveraging support from bodies like the Global Environment Facility (GEF) and the Green Climate Fund (GCF), Bhutan can access funding and expertise to enhance its contributions to global environmental goals, including marine conservation.
Recommendations
To maximize its role in addressing ocean acidification and supporting global marine conservation, Bhutan can adopt the following strategies:
- Strengthen International Advocacy: Bhutan should use its platform in organizations like the UNFCCC and SAARC to advocate for policies that address ocean acidification, including stricter emission reduction targets and funding for marine research in vulnerable regions. Highlighting its carbon-negative status can inspire other nations to adopt similar climate mitigation measures.
- Promote Regional Cooperation: Through SAARC and bilateral agreements with neighboring coastal countries, Bhutan can support initiatives that reduce regional CO2 emissions and promote sustainable fisheries. Technical assistance and knowledge sharing on sustainable land management could aid coastal ecosystem restoration efforts like mangrove planting.
- Enhance Public Awareness and Education: Integrating ocean acidification into national education curricula and eco-tourism programs can raise awareness about global environmental interconnectedness. Bhutan can collaborate with international NGOs to host workshops and campaigns that highlight the links between terrestrial and marine conservation.
- Seek Funding and Partnerships: Bhutan should actively pursue funding from global environmental funds like the GEF and GCF to support projects that align with marine conservation goals. Partnerships with UNEP and IUCN can provide technical expertise and facilitate collaborative projects on carbon sequestration and climate resilience.
- Integrate Marine Conservation into National Policies: While maintaining focus on domestic priorities, Bhutan can incorporate global marine health into its broader environmental strategies under the GNH framework. Policies that emphasize carbon neutrality and sustainable development inherently support marine conservation by reducing atmospheric CO2 levels.
Implementing these recommendations requires coordinated efforts between Bhutan’s government, international partners, and local communities. While direct impacts on marine ecosystems may be limited, Bhutan’s contributions to climate mitigation and international advocacy can create ripple effects that benefit global marine conservation.
Conclusion
Ocean acidification represents a pressing threat to marine ecosystems and human communities worldwide, driven by anthropogenic CO2 emissions that alter seawater chemistry. While Bhutan, a landlocked Himalayan nation, does not directly interact with the ocean, its exemplary environmental policies and commitment to sustainability position it as a valuable ally in the global fight against acidification. Through its carbon-negative status, participation in international treaties like the Paris Agreement and CBD, and potential for regional cooperation, Bhutan can indirectly contribute to marine conservation by addressing the root causes of acidification.
This study highlights the interconnectedness of global environmental challenges, demonstrating that even non-coastal nations have a role to play in protecting marine ecosystems. By advocating for stronger climate policies, fostering partnerships, and raising awareness, Bhutan can amplify its impact on global marine health. Future research should explore specific mechanisms through which landlocked nations can collaborate with coastal counterparts on marine conservation, as well as the long-term efficacy of Bhutan’s contributions to reducing atmospheric CO2. Ultimately, collective action across all nations—coastal and landlocked alike—is essential to mitigate ocean acidification and safeguard the world’s oceans for future generations.
References
- Annual Reviews. (2020). The Impacts of Ocean Acidification on Marine Ecosystems and Reliant Human Communities. Annual Review of Environment and Resources. https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-environ-012320-083019
- IUCN. (2014). Ocean Acidification: International Policy and Governance Options. https://iucn.org/content/iucn-releases-new-guidance-document-ocean-acidification-policy-and-governance-options
- Nation Thailand. (2025). Ocean Acidification Surges Past Safe Limits, Threatens Marine Life. https://nationthailand.com/sustaination/40052818
- NOAA Fisheries. (2021). Understanding Ocean Acidification. https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/insight/understanding-ocean-acidification
- Royal Government of Bhutan. (2020). National Environment Strategy. Thimphu, Bhutan.
- Smithsonian Ocean. (2018). Ocean Acidification. https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/invertebrates/ocean-acidification
- Sustainability Times. (2025). Hawai’i’s Reefs Hit by Record Acid Surge as Locals Accuse Authorities of Sacrificing Ocean Life. https://sustainability-times.com/research/this-is-deliberate-destruction-hawaiis-reefs-hit-by-record-acid-surge-as-locals-accuse-authorities-of-sacrificing-ocean-life
- UN Environment Programme. (2021). Convention on Biological Diversity: National Reports. UNEP Publications.
- Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS). (2019). CO2 and Ocean Acidification: Causes, Impacts, Solutions. https://www.ucs.org/resources/co2-and-ocean-acidification
