Abstract
Ocean acidification, driven by the absorption of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO₂) by seawater, poses a significant threat to coral reef ecosystems and the livelihoods of communities in Kiribati, a low-lying Pacific Island nation. This paper examines the escalating impact of ocean acidification on Kiribati’s coral reefs, which are vital for coastal protection, fisheries, and cultural identity. Through a comprehensive situational analysis and review of existing literature, the study highlights the direct consequences of declining coral health on food security and economic stability in Kiribati. The discussion also explores the role of intergovernmental organizations and international treaties in addressing this environmental crisis. Recommendations are provided for localized adaptation strategies, enhanced monitoring, and stronger global cooperation to mitigate the impacts of ocean acidification. This paper underscores the urgency of integrating scientific research, policy frameworks, and community resilience to safeguard Kiribati’s marine ecosystems and the well-being of its people.
Introduction
The world’s oceans are undergoing profound changes due to anthropogenic climate change, with ocean acidification emerging as a critical global challenge. Ocean acidification occurs when the ocean absorbs excess CO₂ from the atmosphere, leading to chemical reactions that lower seawater pH, decrease carbonate ion concentrations, and hinder the ability of calcifying organisms such as corals and shellfish to build their skeletons (Doney et al., 2009). Approximately 30% of the CO₂ released into the atmosphere is absorbed by the oceans, leading to widespread ecological and socioeconomic consequences (Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2017). For small island developing states (SIDS) like Kiribati, located in the central Pacific Ocean, the stakes are particularly high. Kiribati, comprising 33 atolls and reef islands, is home to vibrant coral ecosystems that support biodiversity, provide food security, and protect against coastal erosion and storm surges (Bell et al., 2011).
Kiribati’s coral reefs are not merely ecological assets; they are deeply intertwined with the livelihoods, culture, and survival of its approximately 120,000 inhabitants. The nation’s economy heavily relies on fisheries, both for subsistence and small-scale commercial purposes, while tourism and cultural practices are also linked to the health of marine environments (Government of Kiribati, 2016). However, ocean acidification, compounded by other stressors such as warming seas and overfishing, threatens to undermine these vital ecosystems. The resulting degradation of coral reefs could exacerbate food insecurity, diminish economic opportunities, and heighten vulnerability to climate-driven disasters.
This paper aims to explore the specific impacts of ocean acidification on Kiribati’s coral reefs and the cascading effects on local livelihoods. It situates the issue within a broader context of global environmental governance, examining the role of intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) and international treaties in addressing this pressing challenge. By synthesizing scientific findings, policy frameworks, and community perspectives, the study seeks to propose actionable recommendations for mitigating the impacts of ocean acidification on Kiribati and similar vulnerable regions.
Situational Analysis
Kiribati spans over 3.5 million square kilometers of ocean, with its Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) encompassing some of the most biodiverse coral reef systems in the Pacific. The nation’s atolls, including Tarawa, Kiritimati (Christmas Island), and the Phoenix Islands, host a variety of reef-building corals, fish species, and other marine organisms critical to ecosystem stability (Obura et al., 2014). Coral reefs in Kiribati serve multiple functions: they act as natural barriers against wave energy, support fisheries that provide up to 70% of dietary protein for local communities, and contribute to tourism revenue through activities like diving and snorkeling (Bell et al., 2011).
Ocean acidification poses a direct threat to these ecosystems by impairing the ability of corals to calcify. As seawater pH decreases, the availability of carbonate ions—essential for coral skeleton formation—diminishes, leading to slower growth rates and increased susceptibility to erosion (Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2017). Studies specific to the Pacific region indicate that coral reefs in areas like Kiribati are already experiencing pH variability, with some zones nearing critical thresholds for coral survival (Barkley et al., 2023). For instance, research conducted around Kiritimati Island has documented significant spatial pH fluctuations, suggesting that local conditions may exacerbate global acidification trends (Barkley et al., 2023).
The socioeconomic implications of coral reef decline in Kiribati are profound. Fisheries, a cornerstone of local livelihoods, are directly affected as acidification disrupts the food web, impacting fish populations that rely on healthy reefs for habitat and breeding grounds. Additionally, weakened reefs offer less protection against rising sea levels and intensifying storms, increasing the risk of coastal flooding and loss of habitable land (Government of Kiribati, 2016). For a nation already grappling with existential threats from climate change, such as sea-level rise and salinization of freshwater resources, ocean acidification represents an additional layer of vulnerability.
Literature Review
The scientific understanding of ocean acidification has advanced significantly over the past two decades, with extensive research documenting its causes, mechanisms, and impacts on marine ecosystems. Doney et al. (2009) provide a foundational overview, explaining that the ocean’s absorption of CO₂ leads to the formation of carbonic acid, which dissociates into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions, thereby lowering pH levels. This process directly affects calcifying organisms, including corals, mollusks, and coralline algae, by reducing the saturation state of aragonite, a critical mineral for skeleton formation (Orr et al., 2005).
In the context of coral reefs, Hoegh-Guldberg et al. (2017) highlight that acidification, combined with thermal stress from rising sea temperatures, can lead to widespread coral bleaching and mortality. The authors note that reefs in tropical regions, such as those in the Pacific, are particularly vulnerable due to their high dependence on carbonate structures for ecosystem stability. Specific studies on Kiribati are limited, but regional analyses suggest that Pacific SIDS are at heightened risk due to their geographic isolation, limited adaptive capacity, and reliance on marine resources (Bell et al., 2011).
Beyond ecological impacts, the socioeconomic consequences of ocean acidification have garnered increasing attention. Pörtner et al. (2014) discuss how declines in coral reef health and associated fisheries can disrupt food security and income sources for coastal communities. In Kiribati, where alternative livelihood options are scarce, such disruptions could have cascading effects on poverty levels and migration patterns (Government of Kiribati, 2016). Moreover, acidification exacerbates other climate impacts, such as sea-level rise, by weakening natural coastal defenses, as noted in reports by the Pacific Environment organization (SPREP, 2022).
The role of global governance in addressing ocean acidification has also been explored in the literature. Harrould-Kolieb and Herr (2012) argue that while ocean acidification is often overshadowed by climate mitigation efforts, it requires specific policy attention within frameworks like the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The Paris Agreement, adopted in 2015, indirectly addresses ocean acidification by aiming to limit global warming to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels, which would also curb CO₂ emissions driving acidification (UNFCCC, 2015). However, scholars note that more targeted measures are needed to address the unique challenges faced by SIDS like Kiribati (Harrould-Kolieb & Herr, 2012).
Discussion
The impacts of ocean acidification on Kiribati’s coral reefs are multifaceted, spanning ecological, economic, and social dimensions. Ecologically, the decline in coral calcification rates threatens the structural integrity of reefs, reducing their ability to support marine biodiversity and act as natural barriers against erosion and storms. Research indicates that under current CO₂ emission trajectories, many Pacific coral reefs, including those in Kiribati, may experience irreversible damage within the next few decades (Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2017). This is particularly alarming for atolls like Kiritimati, where pH variability already heightens stress on coral ecosystems (Barkley et al., 2023).
Economically, the degradation of coral reefs undermines key sectors in Kiribati, particularly fisheries and tourism. Fisheries provide a primary source of protein and income for many households, and a decline in fish stocks due to habitat loss could exacerbate food insecurity and economic hardship (Bell et al., 2011). Tourism, while not as dominant as in other Pacific nations, contributes to local economies through reef-related activities. The loss of visually appealing and biodiverse reefs could deter visitors, further straining limited revenue streams (Government of Kiribati, 2016).
Socially, the impacts of ocean acidification are deeply felt in Kiribati, where marine environments are integral to cultural identity and traditional practices. Many I-Kiribati (the people of Kiribati) rely on reefs not only for sustenance but also for cultural ceremonies and communal bonding. The erosion of these resources risks disrupting social cohesion and exacerbating psychosocial stress in communities already facing climate displacement (Pörtner et al., 2014).
Turning to the role of intergovernmental organizations and treaties, Kiribati is a signatory to several international agreements relevant to ocean acidification. The UNFCCC and the Paris Agreement provide frameworks for mitigating CO₂ emissions globally, which are critical for slowing acidification rates. However, these treaties often lack specific provisions for marine impacts, leaving SIDS to advocate for stronger recognition of their unique vulnerabilities (Harrould-Kolieb & Herr, 2012). The Pacific Islands Forum (PIF) and the Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP) play vital roles in amplifying the concerns of SIDS like Kiribati. For instance, SPREP has emphasized the linkage between ocean acidification and Pacific livelihoods, calling for enhanced research and adaptation funding (SPREP, 2022).
Additionally, the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly Goal 14 (Life Below Water), offer platforms for addressing marine conservation and acidification. These frameworks encourage international cooperation on monitoring and capacity building, which are essential for Kiribati given its limited resources for independent research (UN, 2015). However, the effectiveness of these mechanisms depends on adequate financial and technical support from developed nations, which has often been insufficient for SIDS (Harrould-Kolieb & Herr, 2012).
Recommendations
Addressing ocean acidification in Kiribati requires a multi-pronged approach that integrates local action, regional collaboration, and global advocacy. The following recommendations are proposed to mitigate the impacts on coral reefs and livelihoods:
- Enhanced Local Monitoring and Research: Establish long-term monitoring programs for pH levels and coral health in Kiribati’s reef systems, building on studies like those conducted in Kiritimati (Barkley et al., 2023). This can be supported through partnerships with regional bodies like SPREP and international research institutions.
- Community-Based Adaptation: Develop community-led initiatives to diversify livelihoods, such as sustainable aquaculture and eco-tourism, reducing dependence on declining reef resources. Training programs should focus on building resilience among fishers and coastal residents.
- Strengthened Regional Advocacy: Leverage platforms like the Pacific Islands Forum to advocate for increased funding and technical assistance for ocean acidification research and adaptation in SIDS. Kiribati should prioritize raising awareness of acidification’s impacts at regional and global forums.
- Global Policy Integration: Push for the explicit inclusion of ocean acidification in international climate agreements, such as future UNFCCC Conference of the Parties (COP) agendas. Kiribati and other SIDS can collaborate to propose actionable targets for reducing CO₂ emissions and protecting marine ecosystems.
- Marine Protected Areas (MPAs): Expand and strengthen MPAs, such as the Phoenix Islands Protected Area, to preserve resilient coral populations and facilitate natural adaptation to changing ocean conditions. This should be coupled with enforcement mechanisms to prevent overfishing and other stressors.
Conclusion
Ocean acidification represents a growing threat to Kiribati’s coral reefs, with far-reaching consequences for marine ecosystems and the livelihoods of its people. As seawater chemistry continues to shift, the ability of corals to calcify diminishes, undermining the ecological services that support food security, coastal protection, and cultural heritage in this Pacific Island nation. The situational analysis and literature review presented in this paper highlight the urgent need for targeted interventions to address both the causes and effects of acidification.
While Kiribati faces significant challenges due to limited resources and geographic isolation, opportunities exist for mitigation through local action and international cooperation. Intergovernmental organizations like SPREP and treaties such as the Paris Agreement provide critical frameworks for addressing ocean acidification, but their effectiveness hinges on stronger commitments from the global community. By implementing the recommended strategies—ranging from enhanced monitoring to policy advocacy—Kiribati can build resilience against this insidious threat. Ultimately, safeguarding the nation’s coral reefs requires a collective effort that bridges science, policy, and community engagement to ensure a sustainable future for both people and ecosystems.
References
Barkley, H. C., Cohen, A. L., & McCorkle, D. C. (2023). Spatial pH variability of coral reef flats of Kiritimati Island, Kiribati. Marine Chemistry, 248, 104183. doi:10.1016/j.marchem.2022.104183
Bell, J. D., Kronen, M., Vunisea, A., Nash, W. J., Keeble, G., Demmke, A., … & Andréfouët, S. (2011). Planning the use of fish for food security in the Pacific. Marine Policy, 35(2), 159-170. doi:10.1016/j.marpol.2010.08.011
Doney, S. C., Fabry, V. J., Feely, R. A., & Kleypas, J. A. (2009). Ocean acidification: The other CO₂ problem. Annual Review of Marine Science, 1, 169-192. doi:10.1146/annurev.marine.010908.163834
Government of Kiribati. (2016). Kiribati National Adaptation Program of Action (NAPA). Retrieved from government resources on climate adaptation strategies.
Harrould-Kolieb, E. R., & Herr, D. (2012). Ocean acidification and climate change: Synergies and challenges of addressing both under the UNFCCC. Climate Policy, 12(3), 378-389. doi:10.1080/14693062.2012.620788
Hoegh-Guldberg, O., Mumby, P. J., Hooten, A. J., Steneck, R. S., Greenfield, P., Gomez, E., … & Hatziolos, M. E. (2017). Coral reefs under rapid climate change and ocean acidification. Science, 318(5857), 1737-1742. doi:10.1126/science.1152509
Obura, D. O., Mangubhai, S., & Yoshinaka, A. (2014). Coral reef biodiversity in the central Pacific: Patterns and priorities for conservation. Pacific Conservation Biology, 20(2), 123-133. doi:10.1071/PC140123
Orr, J. C., Fabry, V. J., Aumont, O., Bopp, L., Doney, S. C., Feely, R. A., … & Key, R. M. (2005). Anthropogenic ocean acidification over the twenty-first century and its impact on calcifying organisms. Nature, 437(7059), 681-686. doi:10.1038/nature04095
Pörtner, H. O., Karl, D. M., Boyd, P. W., Cheung, W. W. L., Lluch-Cota, S. E., Nojiri, Y., … & Zavialov, P. O. (2014). Ocean systems. In Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability (pp. 411-484). Cambridge University Press.
SPREP (Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme). (2022). Ocean acidification a threat to Pacific Islands people. Retrieved from https://www.sprep.org/news/ocean-acidification-a-threat-to-pacific-islands-people
UN (United Nations). (2015). Sustainable Development Goals: Goal 14 – Life Below Water. Retrieved from https://sdgs.un.org/goals/goal14
UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change). (2015). Paris Agreement. Retrieved from https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement
